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发布时间: 2022-07-03 05:27:43

‘壹’ 关于宇宙的资料关于宇宙的资料英文还有翻译

宇宙

universe;cosmos

宇宙的诞生

我们现在观察到的宇宙,其边界大约有100多亿光年。它由众多的星系所组成。地球是太阳系的一颗普通行星,而太阳系是银河系中一颗普通恒星。我们所观察到恒星、行星、慧星、星系等是怎么产生的呢?

宇宙学说认为,我们所观察到的宇宙,在其孕育的初期,集中于一个很小、温度极高、密度极大的原始火球。在150亿年到200亿年前,原始火球发生大爆炸,从此开始了我们所在的宇宙的诞生史。

宇宙原始大爆炸后0.01秒,宇宙的温度大约为1000亿度。物质存在的主要形式是电子、光子、中微子。以后,物质迅速扩散,温度迅速降低。大爆炸后1秒钟,下降到100亿度。大爆炸后14秒,温度约30亿度。35秒后,为3亿度,化学元素开始形成。温度不断下降,原子不断形成。宇宙间弥漫着气体云。他们在引力的作用下,形成恒星系统,恒星系统又经过漫长的演化,成为今天的宇宙。

物质现象的总和。广义上指无限多样、永恒发展的物质世界,狭义上指一定时代观测所及的最大天体系统。后者往往称作可观测宇宙、我们的宇宙,现在相当于天文学中的“总星系”。

2003年2月份,美国国家航空航天局曾向全世界公布他们有关宇宙年龄的研究成果。根据其公布的资料显示,宇宙年龄应该为137亿岁。2003年11月份,国际天体物理学研究小组宣称,宇宙的确切年龄应该是141亿岁。地球的形成大约是距今45亿年。

词源考察 在中国古籍中最早使用宇宙这个词的是《庄子·齐物论》。“宇”的含义包括各个方向,如东西南北的一切地点。“宙”包括过去、现在、白天、黑夜,即一切不同的具体时间。战国末期的尸佼说:“四方上下曰宇,往古来今曰宙。”“宇”指空间,“宙”指时间,“宇宙”就是时间和空间的统一。后来“宇宙”一词便被用来指整个客观实在世界。与宇宙相当的概念有“天地”、“干坤”、“六合”等,但这些概念仅指宇宙的空间方面。《管子》的“宙合”一词,“宙”指时间,“合”(即“六合”)指空间,与“宇宙”概念最接近。

在西方,宇宙这个词在英语中叫cosmos,在俄语中叫кocMoc ,在德语中叫kosmos ,在法语中叫cosmos。它们都源自希腊语的κoσμoζ,古希腊人认为宇宙的创生乃是从浑沌中产生出秩序来,κoσμoζ其原意就是秩序。但在英语中更经常用来表示“宇宙”的词是universe。此词与universitas有关。在中世纪,人们把沿着同一方向朝同一目标共同行动的一群人称为universitas。在最广泛的意义上,universitas 又指一切现成的东西所构成的统一整体,那就是universe,即宇宙。universe和cosmos常常表示相同的意义,所不同的是,前者强调的是物质现象的总和,而后者则强调整体宇宙的结构或构造。

宇宙观念的发展 宇宙结构观念的发展 远古时代,人们对宇宙结构的认识处于十分幼稚的状态,他们通常按照自己的生活环境对宇宙的构造作了幼稚的推测。在中国西周时期,生活在华夏大地上的人们提出的早期盖天说认为,天穹像一口锅,倒扣在平坦的大地上;后来又发展为后期盖天说,认为大地的形状也是拱形的。公元前7世纪 ,巴比伦人认为,天和地都是拱形的,大地被海洋所环绕,而其中央则是高山。古埃及人把宇宙想象成以天为盒盖、大地为盒底的大盒子,大地的中央则是尼罗河。古印度人想象圆盘形的大地负在几只大象上,而象则站在巨大的龟背上,公元前7世纪末,古希腊的泰勒斯认为,大地是浮在水面上的巨大圆盘,上面笼罩着拱形的天穹。

最早认识到大地是球形的是古希腊人。公元前6世纪,毕达哥拉斯从美学观念出发,认为一切立体图形中最美的是球形,主张天体和我们所居住的大地都是球形的。这一观念为后来许多古希腊学者所继承,但直到1519~1522年,葡萄牙的F.麦哲伦率领探险队完成了第一次环球航行后 ,地球是球形的观念才最终证实。

公元2世纪,C.托勒密提出了一个完整的地心说。这一学说认为地球在宇宙的中央安然不动,月亮、太阳和诸行星以及最外层的恒星天都在以不同速度绕着地球旋转。为了说明行星视运动的不均匀性,他还认为行星在本轮上绕其中心转动,而本轮中心则沿均轮绕地球转动。地心说曾在欧洲流传了1000多年。1543年,N.哥白尼提出科学的日心说,认为太阳位于宇宙中心,而地球则是一颗沿圆轨道绕太阳公转的普通行星。1609年,J.开普勒揭示了地球和诸行星都在椭圆轨道上绕太阳公转,发展了哥白尼的日心说,同年,G.伽利略则率先用望远镜观测天空,用大量观测事实证实了日心说的正确性。1687年,I.牛顿提出了万有引力定律,深刻揭示了行星绕太阳运动的力学原因,使日心说有了牢固的力学基础。在这以后,人们逐渐建立起了科学的太阳系概念。

在哥白尼的宇宙图像中,恒星只是位于最外层恒星天上的光点。1584年,G.布鲁诺大胆取消了这层恒星天,认为恒星都是遥远的太阳。18世纪上半叶,由于E.哈雷对恒星自行的发展和J.布拉得雷对恒星遥远距离的科学估计,布鲁诺的推测得到了越来越多人的赞同。18世纪中叶,T.赖特、I.康德和J.H.朗伯推测说,布满全天的恒星和银河构成了一个巨大的天体系统。F.W.赫歇尔首创用取样统计的方法,用望远镜数出了天空中大量选定区域的星数以及亮星与暗星的比例,1785年首先获得了一幅扁而平、轮廓参差、太阳居中的银河系结构图,从而奠定了银河系概念的基础。在此后一个半世纪中,H.沙普利发现了太阳不在银河系中心、J.H.奥尔特发现了银河系的自转和旋臂,以及许多人对银河系直径、厚度的测定,科学的银河系概念才最终确立。

18世纪中叶,康德等人还提出,在整个宇宙中,存在着无数像我们的天体系统(指银河系)那样的天体系统。而当时看去呈云雾状的“星云”很可能正是这样的天体系统。此后经历了长达170年的曲折的探索历程,直到1924年,才由E.P.哈勃用造父视差法测仙女座大星云等的距离确认了河外星系的存在。

近半个世纪,人们通过对河外星系的研究,不仅已发现了星系团、超星系团等更高层次的天体系统,而且已使我们的视野扩展到远达200亿光年的宇宙深处。

宇宙演化观念的发展 在中国,早在西汉时期,《淮南子·俶真训》指出:“有始者,有未始有有始者,有未始有夫未始有有始者”,认为世界有它的开辟之时,有它的开辟以前的时期,也有它的开辟以前的以前的时期。《淮南子·天文训》中还具体勾画了世界从无形的物质状态到浑沌状态再到天地万物生成演变的过程。在古希腊,也存在着类似的见解。例如留基伯就提出,由于原子在空虚的空间中作旋涡运动,结果轻的物质逃逸到外部的虚空,而其余的物质则构成了球形的天体,从而形成了我们的世界。

太阳系概念确立以后,人们开始从科学的角度来探讨太阳系的起源。1644年,R.笛卡尔提出了太阳系起源的旋涡说;1745年,G.L.L.布丰提出了一个因大彗星与太阳掠碰导致形成行星系统的太阳系起源说;1755年和1796年,康德和拉普拉斯则各自提出了太阳系起源的星云说。现代探讨太阳系起源z的新星云说正是在康德-拉普拉斯星云说的基础上发展起来。

1911年,E.赫茨普龙建立了第一幅银河星团的颜色星等图;1913年,H.N.罗素则绘出了恒星的光谱-光度图,即赫罗图。罗素在获得此图后便提出了一个恒星从红巨星开始,先收缩进入主序,后沿主序下滑,最终成为红矮星的恒星演化学说。1924年 ,A.S.爱丁顿提出了恒星的质光关系;1937~1939年,C.F.魏茨泽克和贝特揭示了恒星的能源来自于氢聚变为氦的原子核反应。这两个发现导致了罗素理论被否定,并导致了科学的恒星演化理论的诞生。对于星系起源的研究,起步较迟,目前普遍认为,它是我们的宇宙开始形成的后期由原星系演化而来的。

1917年,A.阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦运用他刚创立的广义相对论建立了一个“静态、有限、无界”的宇宙模型,奠定了现代宇宙学的基础。1922年,G.D.弗里德曼发现,根据阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦的场方程,宇宙不一定是静态的,它可以是膨胀的,也可以是振荡的。前者对应于开放的宇宙,后者对应于闭合的宇宙。1927年,G.勒梅特也提出了一个膨胀宇宙模型.1929年 哈勃发现了星系红移与它的距离成正比,建立了着名的哈勃定律。这一发现是对膨胀宇宙模型的有力支持。20世纪中叶,G.伽莫夫等人提出了热大爆炸宇宙模型,他们还预言,根据这一模型,应能观测到宇宙空间目前残存着温度很低的背景辐射。1965年微波背景辐射的发现证实了伽莫夫等人的预言。从此,许多人把大爆炸宇宙模型看成标准宇宙模型。1980年,美国的古斯在热大爆炸宇宙模型的 基础上又进一步提出了暴涨宇宙模型。这一模型可以解释目前已知的大多数重要观测事实。

宇宙图景 当代天文学的研究成果表明,宇宙是有层次结构的、物质形态多样的、不断运动发展的天体系统。

层次结构 行星是最基本的天体系统。太阳系中共有九大行星:水星 金星 地球 火星 木星 土星 天王星 海王星和冥王星。除水星和金星外,其他行星都有卫星绕其运转,地球有一个卫星 月球,土星的卫星最多,已确认的有17颗。行星 小行星 彗星和流星体都围绕中心天体太阳运转,构成太阳系。太阳占太阳系总质量的99.86%,其直径约140万千米,最大的行星木星的直径约14万千米。太阳系的大小约120亿千米。有证据表明,太阳系外也存在其他行星系统。2500亿颗类似太阳的恒星和星际物质构成更巨大的天体系统——银河系。银河系中大部分恒星和星际物质集中在一个扁球状的空间内,从侧面看很像一个“铁饼”,正面看去则呈旋涡状。银河系的直径约10万光年,太阳位于银河系的一个旋臂中,距银心约3万光年。银河系外还有许多类似的天体系统,称为河外星系,常简称星系。现已观测到大约有10亿个。星系也聚集成大大小小的集团,叫星系团。平均而言,每个星系团约有百余个星系,直径达上千万光年。现已发现上万个星系团。包括银河系在内约40个星系构成的一个小星系团叫本星系群。若干星系团集聚在一起构成更大、更高一层次的天体系统叫超星系团。超星系团往往具有扁长的外形,其长径可达数亿光年。通常超星系团内只含有几个星系团,只有少数超星系团拥有几十个星系团。本星系群和其附近的约50个星系团构成的超星系团叫做本超星系团。目前天文观测范围已经扩展到200亿光年的广阔空间,它称为总星系。

多样性 天体千差万别,宇宙物质千姿百态。太阳系天体中,水星、金星表面温度约达700K,遥远的冥王星向日面的温度最高时也只有50K;金星表面笼罩着浓密的二氧化碳大气和硫酸云雾,气压约50个大气压,水星、火星表面大气却极其稀薄,水星的大气压甚至小于2×10-9毫巴;类地行星(水星、金星、火星)都有一个固体表面,类木行星却是一个流体行星;土星的平均密度为0.70克/厘米3,比水的密度还小,木星、天王星、海王星的平均密 度略大于水的密度,而水星、金星、地球等的密度则达到水的密度的5倍以上;多数行星都是顺向自转,而金星是逆向自转;地球表面生机盎然,其他行星则是空寂荒凉的世界。

太阳在恒星世界中是颗普遍而又典型的恒星。已经发现,有些红巨星的直径为太阳直径的几千倍。中子星直径只有太阳的几万分之一;超巨星的光度高达太阳光度的数百万倍,白矮星光度却不到太阳的几十万分之一。红超巨星的物质密度小到只有水的密度的百万分之一,而白矮星、中子星的密度分别可高达水的密度的十万倍和百万亿倍。太阳的表面温度约为6000K,O型星表面温度达30000K,而红外星的表面温度只有约600K。太阳的普遍磁场强度平均为1×10-4特斯拉,有些磁白矮星的磁场通常为几千、几万高斯(1高斯=10-4特斯拉),而脉冲星的磁场强度可高达十万亿高斯。有些恒星光度基本不变,有些恒星光度在不断变化,称变星。有的变星光度变化是有周期的,周期从1小时到几百天不等。有些变星的光度变化是突发性的,其中变化最剧烈的是新星和超新星,在几天内,其光度可增加几万倍甚至上亿倍。

恒星在空间常常聚集成双星或三五成群的聚星,它们可能占恒星总数的1/3。也有由几十、几百乃至几十万个恒星聚在一起的星团。宇宙物质除了以密集形式形成恒星、行星等之外,还以弥漫的形式形成星际物质。星际物质包括星际气体和尘埃,平均每立方厘米只有一个原子,其中高度密集的地方形成形状各异的各种星云。宇宙中除发出可见光的恒星、星云等天体外,还存在紫外天体、红外天体、X射线源、γ射线源以及射电源。

星系按形态可分为椭圆星系、旋涡星系、棒旋星系、透镜星系和不规则星系等类型。60年代又发现许多正在经历着爆炸过程或正在抛射巨量物质的河外天体,统称为活动星系,其中包括各种射电星系、塞佛特星系、N型星系、马卡良星系、蝎虎座BL型天体,以及类星体等等。许多星系核有规模巨大的活动:速度达几千千米/秒的气流,总能量达1055焦耳的能量输出,规模巨大的物质和粒子抛射,强烈的光变等等。在宇宙中有种种极端物理状态:超高温、超高压、超高密、超真空、超强磁场、超高速运动、超高速自转、超大尺度时间和空间、超流、超导等。为我们认识客观物质世界提供了理想的实验环境。

运动和发展 宇宙天体处于永恒的运动和发展之中,天体的运动形式多种多样,例如自转、各自的空间运动(本动)、绕系统中心的公转以及参与整个天体系统的运动等。月球一方面自转一方面围绕地球运转,同时又跟随地球一起围绕太阳运转。太阳一方面自转,一方面又向着武仙座方向以20千米/秒的速度运动,同时又带着整个太阳系以250千米/秒的速度绕银河系中心运转,运转一周约需2.2亿年。银河系也在自转,同时也有相对于邻近的星系的运动。本超星系团也可能在膨胀和自转。总星系也在膨胀。

现代天文学已经揭示了天体的起源和演化的历程。当代关于太阳系起源学说认为,太阳系很可能是50亿年前银河系中的一团尘埃气体云(原始太阳星云)由于引力收缩而逐渐形成的(见太阳系起源)。恒星是由星云产生的,它的一生经历了引力收缩阶段、主序阶段、红巨星阶段、晚期阶段和临终阶段。星系的起源和宇宙起源密切相关,流行的看法是:在宇宙发生热大爆炸后40万年,温度降到4000K,宇宙从辐射为主时期转化为物质为主时期,这时或由于密度涨落形成的引力不稳定性,或由于宇宙湍流的作用而逐步形成原星系,然后再演化为星系团和星系。热大爆炸宇宙模型描绘了我们的宇宙的起源和演化史:我们的宇宙起源于200亿年前的一次大爆炸,当时温度极高、密度极大。随着宇宙的膨胀,它经历了从热到冷、从密到稀、从辐射为主时期到物质为主时期的演变过程,直至10~20亿年前,才进入大规模形成星系的阶段,此后逐渐形成了我们当今看到的宇宙。1980年提出的暴涨宇宙模型则是热大爆炸宇宙模型的补充。它认为在宇宙极早期,在我们的宇宙诞生后约10-36秒的时候,它曾经历了一个暴涨阶段。

哲学分析 宇宙概念 有些宇宙学家认为,我们的宇宙是唯一的宇宙;大爆炸不是在宇宙空间的哪一点爆炸,而是整个宇宙自身的爆炸。但是,新提出的暴涨模型表明,我们的宇宙仅是整个暴涨区域的非常小的一部分,暴涨后的区域尺度要大于1026厘米,而那时我们的宇宙只有10厘米。还有可能这个暴涨区域是一个更大的始于无规则混沌状态的物质体系的一部分。这种情况恰如科学史上人类的认识从太阳系宇宙扩展到星系宇宙,再扩展到大尺度宇宙那样,今天的科学又正在努力把人类的认识进一步向某种探索中的“暴涨宇宙”、“无规则的混沌宇宙”推移。我们的宇宙不是唯一的宇宙,而是某种更大的物质体系的一部分,大爆炸不是整个宇宙自身的爆炸,而是那个更大物质体系的一部分的爆炸。因此,有必要区分哲学和自然科学两个不同层次的宇宙概念。哲学宇宙概念所反映的是无限多样、永恒发展的物质世界;自然科学宇宙概念所涉及的则是人类在一定时代观测所及的最大天体系统。两种宇宙概念之间的关系是一般和个别的关系。随着自然科学宇宙概念的发展,人们将逐步深化和接近对无限宇宙的认识。弄清两种宇宙概念的区别和联系,对于坚持马克思主义的宇宙无限论,反对宇宙有限论、神创论、机械论、不可知论、哲学代替论和取消论,都有积极意义。

宇宙的创生 有些宇宙学家认为,暴涨模型最彻底的改革也许是观测宇宙中所有的物质和能量从无中产生的观点,这种观点之所以在以前不能为人们接受,是因为存在着许多守恒定律,特别是重子数守恒和能量守恒。但随着大统一理论的发展,重子数有可能是不守恒的,而宇宙中的引力能可粗略地说是负的,并精确地抵消非引力能,总能量为零。因此就不存在已知的守恒律阻止观测宇宙从无中演化出来的问题。这种“无中生有”的观点在哲学上包括两个方面:①本体论方面。如果认为“无”是绝对的虚无,则是错误的。这不仅违反了人类已知的科学实践,而且也违反了暴涨模型本身。按照该模型,我们所研究的观测宇宙仅仅是整个暴涨区域的很小的一部分,在观测宇宙之外并不是绝对的“无”。现在观测宇宙的物质是从假真空状态释放出来的能量转化而来的,这种真空能恰恰是一种特殊的物质和能量形式,并不是创生于绝对的“无”。如果进一步说这种真空能起源于“无”,因而整个观测宇宙归根到底起源于“无”,那么这个“无”也只能是一种未知的物质和能量形式。②认识论和方法论方面。暴涨模型所涉及的宇宙概念是自然科学的宇宙概念。这个宇宙不论多么巨大,作为一个有限的物质体系 ,也有其产生、发展和灭亡的历史。暴涨模型把传统的大爆炸宇宙学与大统一理论结合起来,认为观测宇宙中的物质与能量形式不是永恒的,应研究它们的起源。它把“无”作为一种未知的物质和能量形式,把“无”和“有”作为一对逻辑范畴,探讨我们的宇宙如何从“无”——未知的物质和能量形式,转化为“有”——已知的物质和能量形式,这在认识论和方法论上有一定意义。

时空起源 有些人认为,时间和空间不是永恒的,而是从没有时间和没有空间的状态产生的。根据现有的物理理论,在小于10-43秒和10-33厘米的范围内,就没有一个“钟”和一把“尺子”能加以测量,因此时间和空间概念失效了,是一个没有时间和空间的物理世界。这种观点提出已知的时空形式有其适用的界限是完全正确的。正像历史上的牛顿时空观发展到相对论时空观那样,今天随着科学实践的发展也必然要求建立新的时空观。由于在大爆炸后10-43秒以内,广义相对论失效,必须考虑引力的量子效应,因此有些人试图通过时空的量子化的途径来探讨已知的时空形式的起源。这些工作都是有益的,但我们决不能因为人类时空观念的发展或者在现有的科学技术水平上无法度量新的时空形式,而否定作为物质存在形式的时间、空间的客观存在。

人和宇宙 从本世纪60年代开始,由于人择原理的提出和讨论,出现了人类存在和宇宙产生的关系问题。人择原理认为 ,可能存在许多具有不同物理参数和初始条件的宇宙,但只有物理参数和初始条件取特定值的宇宙才能演化出人类,因此我们只能看到一种允许人类存在的宇宙。人择原理用人类的存在去约束过去可能有的初始条件和物理定律,减少它们的任意性,使一些宇宙学现象得到解释,这在科学方法论上有一定的意义。但有人提出,宇宙的产生依赖于作为观测者的人类的存在。这种观点值得商榷。现在根据暴涨模型,那些被传统大爆炸模型作为初始条件的状态,有可能从极早期宇宙的演化中产生出来,而且宇宙的演化几乎变得与初始条件的一些细节无关。这样就使上述那种利用初始条件的困难来否定宇宙客观实在性的观点失去了基础。但有些人认为,由于暴涨引起的巨大距离尺度,使得从整体上去观测宇宙的结构成为不可能。这种担心有其理由,但如果暴涨模型正确的话,随着科学实践的发展,一定有可能突破人类认识上的困难。

宇宙

宇宙,是我们所在的空间,“宇”字的本义就是指“上下四方”。

地球是我们的家园;

而地球仅是太阳系的第三颗行星;

而太阳系又仅仅定居于银河系巨大旋臂的一侧;

而银河系,在宇宙所有星系中,也许很不起眼……

这一切,组成了我们的宇宙:

宇宙,是所有天体共同的家园。

宇宙,又是我们所在的时间,“宙”的本意就是指“古往今来”。

因为,我们的宇宙不是从来就有的,它也有着诞生和成长的过程。现代科学发现,我们的宇宙大概形成于二百亿年以前。在一次无比壮观的大爆炸中,我们的宇宙诞生了!(这就是着名的“大爆炸”理论。)

宇宙一经形成,就在不停地运动着。科学家发现,宇宙正在膨胀着,星体之间的距离越来越大。

宇宙没有开始,没有结束,没有边界,更没有诞生与毁灭,只有一个个阶段的结束与开始,我们现阶段的宇宙大概形成于二百亿年以前。在一次无比壮观的大爆炸中,这阶段的宇宙开始了!最新研究表明,大爆炸孕育于黑洞中,黑洞将所有物质,包括光子在内压到一个点,这时连电子,中子,质子等都已不存在(究竟是什么物质比电子还小呢?当代科技无法解释,暂称为夸克),这时发生了比核聚变更高等级的爆炸,这种爆炸的范围至少波及数十亿光年,又一个新的宇宙纪元就诞生了.

‘贰’ 关于太空的英语文章和俗语等等!!!快!急!!

yyy

‘叁’ 太空知识(英语)

space
spaceship
star
astronaut
我刚五年级,就知道这些,希望能帮助到你!

‘肆’ 太空的知识

太空(英语:Space)是指地球大气层以外的宇宙空间,大气层空间以外的整个空间。物理学家将大气分为5层:对流层(海平面至9千米)、平流层(9~45千米)、中间层(45~80千米)、热成层(电离层,80~400千米)和外大气层(电离层,400千米以上)。

地球上空的大气约有3/4在对流层内,97%在平流层以下,平流层的外缘是航空器依靠空气支持而飞行的最高限度。

(4)太空英语知识扩展阅读:

一、太空旅游

太空旅游是基于人们遨游太空的理想,到太空去旅游,给人提供一种前所未有的体验,最新奇和最为刺激人的是可以观赏太空旖旎的风光,同时还可以享受失重的味道。

而这两种体验只有太空中才能享受到,可以说,此景只有天上有。太空游项目始于2001年4月30日。第一位太空游客为美国商人丹尼斯蒂托,第二位太空游客为南非富翁马克·沙特尔沃思,第三位太空游客为美国人格雷戈里·奥尔森。聂海胜就是其中的一位。

二、太空行走

太空行走(Walking in space)又称为出舱活动,即航天员在载人航天器之外或在月球和行星等其他天体上完成各种任务的过程。

它是载人航天的一项关键技术,是载人航天工程在轨道上安装大型设备、进行科学实验、施放卫星、检查和维修航天器的重要手段。要实现太空行走这一目标,需要诸多的特殊技术保障。

‘伍’ 关于太空的资料(英文)

Outer space
"Deep space" redirects here. For the NASA space probes, see Deep Space 1 and Deep Space 2.

Layers of Atmosphere - not to scale (NOAA)Outer space, also simply called space, refers to the relatively empty regions of the universe outside the atmospheres of celestial bodies. Outer space is used to distinguish it from airspace (and terrestrial locations). Contrary to popular understanding, outer space is not completely empty but contains a low density of particles, predominantly hydrogen gas as well as electromagnetic radiation.

Earth's boundary
There is no discrete boundary between the Earth's atmosphere and space as the atmosphere graally attenuates with increasing altitude. If the atmosphere had a constant temperature, its pressure would decrease exponentially from a sea-level value of 100 kPa (1 bar) toward its final value of zero. The Federation Aeronautique Internationale has established the Kármán line at an altitude of 100 km (62 miles) as a working definition for the boundary between atmosphere and space. The United States designates people who travel above an altitude of 50 miles (80 km) as astronauts. During re-entry, 400,000 feet (75 miles or 120 km) marks the boundary where atmospheric drag becomes noticeable.

[edit]
Solar System
Outer space within the solar system is called interplanetary space, which passes over into interstellar space at the heliopause. The vacuum of outer space is not really empty; it is sparsely filled with several dozen organic molecules discovered to date by microwave spectros. According to the Big bang theory,2.7 K blackbody radiation was left over from the 'big bang' and the origin of the universe, and cosmic rays, which include ionized atomic nuclei and various subatomic particles. There is also gas, plasma and st, and small meteors and material left over from previous manned and unmanned launches that are a potential hazard to spacecraft. Some of this debris re-enters the atmosphere periodically.

The absence of air makes outer space (and the surface of the Moon) ideal locations for astronomy at all wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum, as evidenced by the spectacular pictures sent back by the Hubble Space Telescope, allowing light from about 14 billion years ago, back almost to the time of the Big Bang to be observed. Pictures and other data from unmanned space vehicles have provided invaluable information about the planets, asteroids and comets in our solar system.

[edit]
Pressure variance
Going from sea level to outer space proces a pressure difference of only about 15 lbf/sq in, equal to surfacing from an underwater depth of about 34 ft (10 m).

[edit]
Vacuum
Contrary to popular belief a person suddenly exposed to the vacuum would not explode, but it would take a matter of milliseconds for a person to freeze to death. Water vapor would start to boil off from exposed areas such as the cornea of the eye, and along with oxygen, from membranes inside the lungs. Here is NASA's explanation.

[edit]
Satellites
There are many artificial satellites orbiting the Earth, including geosynchronous communication satellites 35,786 km (22,241 miles) above mean sea level at the Equator. Their orbits never "decay" because there is almost no matter there to exert frictional drag. There is also increasing reliance, for both military and civilian uses, of satellites which enable the Global Positioning System (GPS). A common misconception is that people in orbit are outside Earth's gravity because they are obviously "floating". They are floating because they are in "free fall": the force of gravity and their linear velocity is creating an inward centripetal force which is stopping them from flying out into space. Earth's gravity reaches out far past the Van Allen belt and keeps the Moon in orbit at an average distance of 384,403 km (238,857 miles). The gravity of all celestial bodies drops off toward zero with the inverse square of the distance.

[edit]
Milestones on the way to space
Sea level - 100 kPa (1 atm; 1 bar; 760 mm Hg; 14.5 lbf/in²) of atmospheric pressure
4.6 km (15,000 ft) - FAA requires supplemental oxygen for aircraft pilots and passengers.
5.0 km (16,000 ft) - 50 kPa of atmospheric pressure
5.3 km (17,400 ft) - Half of the Earth's atmosphere is below this altitude.
8.8 km (29,035 ft) - Summit of Mount Everest, the highest mountain on Earth
16 km (52,500 ft) - Pressurized cabin or pressure suit required.
18 km (59,000 ft) - Boundary between troposphere and stratosphere
20 km (65,600 ft) - Water at room temperature boils without a pressurized container. (The popular notion that bodily fluids would start to boil at this point is false because the body generates enough internal pressure to prevent it.)
24 km (78,700 ft) - Regular aircraft pressurization systems no longer function.
32 km (105,000 ft) - Turbojets no longer function.
34.7 km (113,740 ft) - Altitude record for manned balloon flight
45 km (148,000 ft) - Ramjets no longer function.
50 km (164,000 ft) - Boundary between stratosphere and mesosphere
80 km (262,000 ft) - Boundary between mesosphere and thermosphere
100 km (328,084 ft) - Kármán line, defining the limit of outer space according to the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. Aerodynamic surfaces no longer function from lack of significant atmospheric density.
120 km (400,000 ft) - First noticeable atmospheric drag ring re-entry from orbit
200 km - Lowest possible orbit with short-term stability (stable for a few days)
350 km - Lowest possible orbit with long-term stability (stable for many years)
690 km - Boundary between thermosphere and exosphere
[edit]
Regions of outer space
Cislunar space
Interplanetary space
Interstellar medium
Intergalactic space
[edit]
Space does not equal orbit
To perform an orbital space flight, a spacecraft must go higher and faster than for a sub-orbital space flight. A spacecraft has not made orbit until it is circling the Earth at a sufficiently great speed such that the weight of the spacecraft is exactly equal to the centripetal acceleration required to keep it in a circular orbit (see circular motion). It must not only rise above the atmosphere, but must also achieve a sufficient orbital speed (angular velocity). For a low Earth orbit, this is about 7.9 km/s (18,000 mph). Konstantin Tsiolkovsky was the first to realize that, given the energy available from any available chemical fuel, a several-stage rocket would be required. The escape velocity to pull free of Earth’s gravitational field altogether and move into interplanetary space is about 40,000 km/h (25,000 mph or 11,000 m/s). The energy required to reach velocity for low Earth orbit (32 MJ/kg) is about twenty times the energy required simply to climb to the corresponding altitude (10 kJ/(km·kg)).

There is a major difference between sub-orbital and orbital space flights. Minimal altitude for a stable orbit around the Earth, without excessive atmospheric drag, begins at around 350 km (220 miles) above mean sea level. A common misunderstanding about the boundary to space is that orbit occurs simply by reaching this altitude. Achieving orbital speed can theoretically occur at any altitude, although atmospheric drag precludes an orbit that is too low. At sufficient speed, an airplane would need a way to keep it from flying off into space, but at present, this speed is several times greater than anything within reasonable technology.

‘陆’ 太空的资料(英文)

Cosmonauts Gennady Padalka (C) of Russia, Andre Kuipers (R) of the Netherlands and Michael Fincke of the United States head to undergo the last test training in the Star City Cosmonaut Training Centre outside Moscow, March 30, 2004. They are to blast off to the International Space Station from Baikonur cosmodrome on April 19. [Reuters]

词汇:

cosmonaut
n.宇航员, 航天员

undergo
vt.经历, 遭受, 忍受

blast off
v.点火起飞

cosmodrome
n.人造卫星发射基地

这是关于太空的,你要给我分哦!!!

‘柒’ 急…!!!关于太空space的简介!要英文的!!

This article is about the idea of space. For the space beyond Earth's atmosphere (as in astronomy and spaceships), see outer space. For all other uses, see space (disambiguation).

The idea of space has been of interest for philosophers and scientists for much of human history. The term is used somewhat differently in different fields of study, hence it is difficult to provide an uncontroversial and clear definition outside of specific defined contexts. Disagreement also exists on whether space itself can be measured or is part of the measuring system. (See Space in philosophy.) Science considers space to be a fundamental quantity (a quantity which can not be defined via other quantities because other quantities — like force and energy — are already defined via space). Thus an operational definition is used in which the procere of measurement of space intervals (distances) and the units of measurement are defined.
In philosophy

Space has a range of definitions:

* One view of space is that it is part of the fundamental structure of the universe, a set of dimensions in which objects are separated and located, have size and shape, and through which they can move.
* A contrasting view is that space is part of a fundamental abstract mathematical conceptual framework (together with time and number) within which we compare and quantify the distance between objects, their sizes, their shapes, and their speeds. In this view, space does not refer to any kind of entity that is a "container" that objects "move through".

These opposing views are relevant also to definitions of time. Space is typically described as having three dimensions, see Three-dimensional space and that three numbers are needed to specify the size of any object and/or its location with respect to another location. Modern physics does not treat space and time as independent dimensions, but treats both as features of space-time – a conception that challenges intuitive notions of distance and time.

An issue of philosophical debate is whether space is an ontological entity itself, or simply a conceptual framework humans need to think (and talk) about the world. Another way to frame this is to ask, "Can space itself be measured, or is space part of the measurement system?" The same debate applies also to time, and an important formulation in both areas was given by Immanuel Kant.

In his Critique of Pure Reason, Kant described space as an a priori intuition that (together with another a priori intuition, time) allows us to comprehend sensual experience. Kant referred to such intuitions as noumena and as things in themselves. In Kant's view, neither space nor time are conceived of as substances, but rather both are elements of a systematic framework we use to structure our experience. Spatial measurements are used to quantify how far apart objects are, and temporal measurements are used to quantify how far apart events occur. However, these measurements are applied by our minds to categorize what we sense and are not an inherent part of the thing in itself.

Schopenhauer, in the preface to his On the Will in Nature, stated that "space is the condition of the possibility of juxtaposition." This is in accordance with Kant's understanding of space as a form in the mind of an observing subject.

Similar philosophical questions concerning space include: Is space absolute or purely relational? Does space have one correct geometry, or is the geometry of space just a convention? Historical positions in these debates have been taken by Isaac Newton (space is absolute), Gottfried Leibniz (space is relational), and Henri Poincaré (spatial geometry is a convention). Two important thought-experiments connected with these questions are: Newton's bucket argument and Poincaré's sphere-world.

In physics

Space is one of the few fundamental quantities in physics, meaning that it cannot be defined via other quantities because there is nothing more fundamental known at present. Thus, similar to the definition of other fundamental quantities (like time and mass), space is defined via measurement. Currently, the standard space interval, called a standard meter or simply meter, is defined as the distance traveled by light in a vacuum ring a time interval of exactly 1/299,792,458 of a second. This definition coupled with present definition of the second is based on the special theory of relativity, that our space-time is a Minkowski space.

Before Einstein's work on relativistic physics, time and space were viewed as independent dimensions. Einstein's discoveries have shown that e to relativity of motion our space and time can be mathematically combined into one symmetric object — space-time. (Distances in space or in time separately are not invariant versus Lorentz coordinate transformations, but distances in Minkowski space-time are — which justifies the name).

However, time and space dimensions should not be viewed as exactly equivalent in Minkowski space-time. One can freely move in space but not in time. Thus, time and space coordinates are treated differently both in special relativity (where time is sometimes considered an imaginary coordinate) and in general relativity (where different signs are assigned to time and space components of spacetime metric).

Spatial measurement

The measurement of physical space has long been important. Geometry, the name given to the branch of mathematics which measures spatial relations, was popularised by the ancient Greeks, although earlier societies had developed measuring systems. The International System of Units, (SI), is now the most common system of units used in the measuring of space, and is almost universally used within science.

Geography is the branch of science concerned with identifying and describing the Earth, utilising spatial awareness to try and understand why things exist in specific locations. Cartography is the mapping of spaces to allow better navigation, for visualisation purposes and to act as a locational device. Geostatistics apply statistical concepts to collected spatial data in order to create an estimate for unobserved phenomena. Astronomy is the science involved with the observation, explanation and measuring of objects in outer space.

In geography

Geographical space is called land, and has a relation to ownership (in which space is seen as property). While some cultures assert the rights of the indivial in terms of ownership, other cultures will identify with a communal approach to land ownership, while still other cultures such as Australian Aboriginals, rather than asserting ownership rights to land, invert the relationship and consider that they are in fact owned by the land. Spatial planning is a method of regulating the use of space at land-level, with decisions made at regional, national and international levels. Space can also impact on human and cultural behaviour, being an important factor in architecture, where it will impact on the design of buildings and structures, and on farming.

Ownership of space is not restricted to land. Ownership of airspace and of waters is decided internationally. Other forms of ownership have been recently asserted to other spaces — for example to the radio bands of the electromagnetic spectrum or to cyberspace.

Public space is a term used to define areas of land is collectively owned by the community, and managed in their name by delegated authorities. Such spaces are open to all, while private property is the land owned by an indivial or company, for their own use and pleasure.

Abstract space is a term used in geography to refer to a hypothetical space characterized by complete homogeneity. When modeling activity or behavior, it is a conceptual tool used to limit extraneous variables such as terrain.

In psychology

The way in which space is perceived is an area which psychologists first began to study in the middle of the 19th century, and it is now thought by those concerned with such studies to be a distinct branch within psychology. Psychologists analysing the perception of space are concerned with how recognition of an object's physical appearance or its interactions are perceived.

Other, more specialised topics studied include amodal perception and object permanence. The perception of surroundings is important e to its necessary relevance to survival, especially with regards to hunting and self preservation.

Phobias include:

* Agoraphobia is a fear of open spaces.
* Astrophobia is a fear of celestial space.
* Claustrophobia is a fear of enclosed spaces.
* Kenophobia is a fear of empty spaces.

In anatomy

In anatomy, a space (or spatium) is an area of the human body with certain borders consisting of anatomic structures, e.g. the axillary space.

‘捌’ 关于太空的英语词汇

galaxy星系
solar太阳的
planet行星
orbit轨道
astronomer天文学家
milk way银河
star恒星
sun太阳
moon月球
movemoent运行
水平有限 谢谢

‘玖’ 关于太空的资料

太空(英语:Space)

地球上空的大气约有75%存在于对流层内,97%在平流层以下。热层的空气密度为地球表面的1%,在外太空1.6万千米高度空气继续存在,甚至在10万千米高度仍有空气粒子。因此,空气空间与外层空间没有明确的界限。